Changes in Temperature

Temperature is one of the most significant factors affecting the life cycles of parasitoid wasps.

An increase in average temperature can accelerate the development of parasitoid wasp larvae and adults. This can lead to more frequent generations per year, which increases their numbers and potentially increases the effectiveness of pest control. However, too high temperatures can also have negative consequences. For example, extreme temperatures can affect egg and larval survival rates, which can reduce overall wasp numbers.

Rising temperatures may lead to the expansion of the range of parasitoid wasps into new regions. This may create opportunities for colonization of new areas, but may also promote competition with native species and disrupt existing ecosystem balances. In addition, range shifts may facilitate the introduction of new parasitoid wasps into ecosystems where they have not previously been found, which may affect native pests and other ecosystem components.

Changes in Humidity

Humidity affects parasitoid wasps through its effects on their habitat and resources.

Changes in moisture levels can affect vegetation and water availability, which in turn affects the abundance of parasitoid wasp host insects. For example, an increase in humidity can promote plant growth, which can lead to an increase in insect pest populations, providing more resources for parasitoids. On the other hand, too much humidity can lead to the spread of diseases and fungi that can negatively affect wasps.

Humidity also affects the behavior of parasitoid wasps. For example, when humidity is high, they may seek drier breeding sites or look for other ways to adapt to changing conditions. Changes in humidity may also affect their ability to find hosts, especially if the ecosystem conditions in which parasitoids and their prey interact change.

Changing climatic conditions and food resources

Climate change can affect the availability of food and other resources that parasitoid wasps need to survive and reproduce.

Climatic changes can affect host insect populations of parasitoid wasps. For example, increases in temperature and changes in precipitation can alter host life cycles, which can affect their interactions with parasitoids. Some host species may reproduce faster or slower, which in turn affects the availability of food for parasitoid wasps.

Climate change may also affect the resources that parasitoid wasps use to lay eggs and develop larvae. For example, changes in vegetation or food availability for adult wasps may affect their ability to find suitable breeding sites and maintain their populations.

Adaptation and Evolution

Parasitoid wasps are highly adaptable, allowing them to cope with changing climatic conditions.

Gradual changes in climate can lead to evolutionary adaptations in parasitoid wasps. These may include changes in life cycles, behavior, and morphology that help wasps better adapt to new environments. For example, they may develop new host-finding strategies or alter their reproductive cycles to better suit changing environmental conditions.

Parasitoid wasps can modify their behavioral strategies in response to climatic changes.

For example, they can adapt their methods of finding food or breeding sites in response to changes in temperature and humidity. These behavioral changes help wasps make efficient use of available resources and maintain their populations in the face of climate change. Changing climatic conditions have profound effects on parasitoid wasps and their ecosystems. Changes in temperature, humidity, and resource availability can lead to both positive and negative consequences for these insects. Understanding these influences and the adaptive mechanisms of parasitoid wasps is important for developing strategies to protect ecosystems and manage agricultural resources in the face of climate change. Effective observation and research on these processes will help predict potential changes in ecosystems and develop measures to maintain and restore them.

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Role of Parasitoid Wasps in Food Chains

Parasitoid wasps occupy a special place in ecosystem food chains as intermediate predators. They control the numbers of their victims – the insects on which they parasitize, which prevents excessive reproduction of pests and maintains a balance between different trophic levels.

The main role of parasitoid wasps is to control the numbers of insects that may become plant pests. For example, many wasp species parasitize caterpillars, aphids, and beetles that can cause severe damage to crops and woodlands. By limiting populations of these pests, parasitoid wasps prevent their mass reproduction, which helps to maintain healthy ecosystems.

The impact of parasitoid wasps on the ecosystem goes beyond pest population control. Their presence can also affect other insect species, including competitors and potential predators. For example, a decrease in pest populations due to wasps may lead to an increase in populations of other insects that are not under such pressure. Thus, parasitoid wasps affect the balance of the entire insect community by regulating interactions between different species.

Ecological Importance of Parasitoid Wasps in Different Habitats

Parasitoid wasps successfully adapt to different habitats and fulfill their functions in both natural and anthropogenically altered ecosystems.

In forests, parasitoid wasps play a critical role in maintaining the health of woody vegetation. They control the numbers of insects that can damage trees, such as bark beetles and caterpillars. Without the presence of parasitoid wasps, populations of these pests could multiply uncontrollably, resulting in significant tree losses and deterioration of forest ecosystems. Wasps also contribute to forest biodiversity by maintaining a balance between different insect species.

In agricultural ecosystems, parasitoid wasps are often considered as biological agents that can replace or supplement the use of chemical pesticides. They help to maintain balance in agroecosystems by controlling the abundance of pests such as aphids and other insects that damage crops. The use of parasitoid wasps helps to reduce dependence on chemical defenses, which benefits the sustainability of agricultural systems and reduces environmental stress.

In urban settings, parasitoid wasps can also serve important functions by regulating pest populations in gardens, parks and green spaces. For example, wasps can control aphid populations on ornamental plants, which contributes to the health of urban flora. The impact of wasps on urban ecosystems helps to maintain ecological balance and reduce the need to use chemical plant protection products.

Adaptations and Success of Parasitoid Wasps

Parasitoid wasps show a high degree of adaptability, making them successful agents of natural control.

Many species of parasitoid wasps have a high degree of specialization on specific hosts. This allows them to efficiently find and infect their victims while minimizing competition with other parasitoid species. This specialization helps to maintain stable populations of both wasps and their victims, which plays an important role in ecological balance.

Wasps exhibit complex behaviors that help them find their hosts even in difficult environments. For example, they can use chemical signals emitted by plants or prey to pinpoint the location of their hosts. These adaptive abilities allow wasps to perform effectively in a wide variety of ecosystems.

Parasitoid wasps are important regulators of ecological balances in a variety of ecosystems. Their ability to control insect pest populations and interact with other species makes them key players in food chains and natural processes. The impact of wasps on forest, agricultural, and urban ecosystems demonstrates their indispensable role in maintaining the health and sustainability of natural systems. Given the ecological importance of these insects, their protection and proper utilization in biological control represent important challenges for biodiversity and ecosystem stability.

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Role in Forest Ecosystems

New Zealand’s forests, known for their biodiversity, need natural mechanisms to control insect pests that can threaten tree and plant health. Parasitoid wasps are some of the main agents that support this control.

Control of Insect Populations
In forest ecosystems, parasitoid wasps control the populations of harmful insects such as caterpillars, aphids, and bark beetles. These insects can significantly damage woody species, resulting in weakened trees and reduced ability to resist disease and other stressors. Parasitoid wasps, by laying eggs in or on the bodies of their victims, effectively limit their populations, preventing mass reproduction of the pests.

Maintaining Biodiversity
By controlling insect pest populations, parasitoid wasps help maintain forest biodiversity. Fewer pests mean that plants and trees have more resources to grow and develop, which in turn supports the diversity of species in the forest ecosystem. Healthy forests filled with a variety of plant and animal species are more resilient to outside influences and climate change.

Relationship to Plants
Parasitoid wasps also interact with plants, attracting them with chemical signals or using them to host offspring. Some plants secrete specific substances that attract wasps when they are attacked by pests. In this way, plants can indirectly attract wasps, which helps regulate the number of insect pests on those plants.

Role in Agricultural Ecosystems

In New Zealand agriculture, parasitoid wasps are important allies of farmers in pest control. Under intensive farming and horticultural conditions, these insects help reduce reliance on chemical pesticides by providing a sustainable method of pest control.

Biological Pest Control
In agricultural ecosystems, parasitoid wasps are used as a natural way to control insect pests. Many wasp species, such as Braconidae and Ichneumonidae, specialize in killing certain pests that cause significant damage to crops. For example, some species of braconids parasitize caterpillars that destroy the foliage of fruit trees, thus reducing crop damage.

Reducing Pesticide Use
The use of parasitoid wasps in biological control helps to reduce the use of chemical pesticides. This has several important consequences: reduced environmental pollution, increased disease resistance in ecosystems, and improved quality of agricultural products. A healthy agroecosystem with parasitoid wasps is more sustainable and economically beneficial as farmers can spend less on chemical plant protection.

Increased Yields
Effective control of pest populations with parasitoid wasps helps to increase crop yields. Healthy plants that have not been attacked by pests can develop fully and produce higher yields. This is especially important for gardeners and farmers of fruits, vegetables and cereals.

Examples of Successful Use of Parasitoid Wasps

New Zealand has a long history of successful use of parasitoid wasps in biological control. One such example is the use of wasps of the genus Encarsia to control whitefly in greenhouses. These small chalcidoids successfully parasitize whitefly larvae, reducing their population and preventing damage to plants. This has reduced the use of insecticides in greenhouse farming and improved the quality of vegetables and fruits grown.

Another example is the introduction of parasitoid wasps to control leaf beetles, which were accidentally introduced to New Zealand and have become a serious threat to native trees. These wasps, which specialize in specific species of leaf beetles, have been effective in reducing their numbers and have helped restore the health of affected forests.

Parasitoid wasps play an important role in maintaining ecological balance in New Zealand’s forest and agricultural ecosystems. Their ability to control insect pests makes them indispensable participants in natural and agroecosystems. The use of parasitoid wasps in biological control helps to reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, maintain biodiversity and improve ecosystem resilience. These insects are an important element in the sustainable management strategy for New Zealand’s natural and agricultural resources.

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Parasitoid wasps play an important role in natural ecosystems by controlling insect populations and preventing overbreeding. In agricultural and forestry settings, they are used as effective biological control agents, reducing the need for chemical pesticides and maintaining ecological balance.

Advantages of using parasitoid wasps in biological control

Ecological safety

Parasitoid wasps are natural enemies of many pest species and therefore represent an environmentally safe control agent. Unlike chemical pesticides, they do not pollute the environment or harm other, non-target organisms. This makes them ideal candidates for integrated crop protection and sustainable agriculture.

Specificity in host selection

Many species of parasitoid wasps are highly specific in their host selection, allowing them to effectively control certain pest species without affecting populations of other insects. This specificity reduces the risk of unintended consequences, such as the destruction of beneficial insects or the development of resistance to biological control.

Long-term action

Parasitoid wasps are able to maintain their populations for a long time after introduction into an ecosystem. This provides long-term effects on pest populations, often without the need to reintroduce wasps or additional interventions. These persistent parasitoid populations create a natural control, keeping pest populations low.

Reduced pesticide costs

The use of parasitoid wasps in biological control can significantly reduce the need for chemical pesticides, which in turn reduces plant protection costs and reduces negative environmental impacts. It also improves ecosystem health and the quality of agricultural products.

Examples of successful use of parasitoid wasps

Aphids and Aphidius colemani
One of the best known examples of the use of parasitoid wasps in biological control is the control of aphids using Aphidius colemani wasps. These small wasps effectively control populations of various aphid species by parasitizing them and significantly reducing their numbers. They are often used in greenhouses and open fields to protect vegetable and ornamental crops.

Whitefly and Encarsia formosa
Another example of a successful application is the use of the wasp Encarsia formosa to control the whitefly, an insect that poses a serious threat to greenhouse crops. These wasps lay their eggs inside the whitefly larvae, causing them to die and reducing damage to plants. Encarsia formosa has been successfully used in various countries to protect greenhouse vegetables and ornamental plants.

Caterpillars and Cotesia glomerata
Cotesia glomerata wasps are used to control caterpillars, especially those that feed on cruciferous crops such as cabbage and broccoli. These parasitoid wasps lay their eggs inside the caterpillars and their larvae feed on the host’s tissues, resulting in its death. The use of Cotesia glomerata in agriculture helps reduce damage caused by caterpillars and reduces the need for chemical insecticides.

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Isolation and specificity of New Zealand’s environment

New Zealand is located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, at a considerable distance from other major landmasses. The isolation of the islands over millions of years has resulted in unique ecosystems that lack many species typical of other parts of the world. Parasitoid wasps, both introduced and endemic, have had to adapt to this isolated environment.

As predators or parasitoids of other insects, these insects have had to develop strategies that allow them to hunt, reproduce, and compete effectively with other species in the face of limited biodiversity and a unique fauna.

Adaptations in host selection

One of the most notable evolutionary adaptations of parasitoid wasps in New Zealand is a change in their host preference. In an environment where the local fauna is very different from that of other continents, wasps had to switch to new hosts. This required significant behavioral and physiological changes.

Some wasp species have shown a high degree of plasticity in host selection, allowing them to parasitize insects not found in their natural range. Other species have developed a narrow specialization, adapting to one or more host species that have become their main food sources and breeding grounds.

Changes in reproductive strategies

Reproductive strategies have also undergone changes. With a limited number of hosts and strong competition, some wasp species have developed more efficient ways to reproduce. For example, increased fecundity or reduced larval development time allows these insects to replenish their populations more quickly and compete more effectively with other parasitoids.

Other wasp species have adapted to seasonal changes in New Zealand conditions. For example, they can synchronize their reproductive cycles with the presence of certain host species that are only active at certain times of the year. Such seasonal adaptations allow wasps to avoid competition and increase their chances of successful reproduction.

Evolution of predatory behavior

The predatory behavior of parasitoid wasps has also undergone changes under pressure from the specificity of New Zealand ecosystems. Some wasp species have evolved more sophisticated host search and capture mechanisms. For example, they can target specific chemical signals released by their hosts or the plants on which these hosts live. These signals play a key role in enabling successful host search and capture in environments where traditional hunting methods may be less effective.

In addition, when competition for a limited number of hosts is high, some wasp species may exhibit aggressive behavior towards other parasitoids preying on the same host species. This aggressive behavior may include directly attacking competitors or using chemicals to deter other wasps from host habitats.

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Parasitoid wasps need a host to complete their development. They are a cross between parasites and predators: like parasites, they feed on their host and, like predators, eventually kill it.

Different groups of parasitic wasps attack different groups of hosts. Wasps from the subfamily Aphidiinae feed exclusively on aphids. Aphids can reduce yields and spread plant viruses, which requires the use of harmful pesticides. Since the host dies after encountering the parasitoid, these wasps are used for biological control and help to naturally control aphid populations.

Classification

Biological control only works if we know what we are controlling and what we are controlling it with. Taxonomists, like me and my colleagues, study insects (in my case, aphids and their parasitoids) and classify them into species.

The systematics of living things is mainly based on their morphology. We still actively use this method, taking these tiny insects apart and looking at them under a microscope to find differences or similarities and determine which species we are looking at. When you’re working with creatures that are one to two millimeters long, it can be intimidating.

Technologies such as DNA barcoding, developed by biologist Paul Hebert, and DNA sequencing techniques, especially next-generation sequencing, have accelerated this work. I can now extract the DNA of a wasp and determine what species it belongs to without having to visually examine the sample.

To do this, we need a comprehensive reference library of DNA sequences, which is a huge and ongoing task. In online databases containing reference sequences, some groups are better represented than others. Ideally, I would use both morphological and molecular data in my work and avoid any misidentifications.

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Ants often help to protect aphids from predators and parasitoids, and in return collect honeydew from them. Ladybugs are voracious predators of aphids and can also be used for biological control. They are also the curse of the hymenoptera because they eat aphids, parasite larvae and everything else.

A parasitized aphid is called a mummy, and it is basically a parasitoid larva or pupa of a wasp that develops in the dead skin of an aphid. At the next stage, the adult wasp emerges and goes about its business: eating, mating, and if it is a female wasp, looking for new hosts to lay eggs and start the cycle again.

Cryptic species

Cryptic species look very similar or identical to other species, but when their DNA is sequenced, there are clear differences in certain genes that indicate the presence of three or five species instead of one. Correct species identification is essential for proper conservation efforts.

In addition, correct species identification is important for applications such as biological control. Closely related and morphologically indistinguishable species of biocontrol agents may have different host requirements and, as a result, will not be effective in controlling the same pests.

It seems that the importance of biodiversity is finally being understood by a wider audience than scientists, and this is great news. Since much of our planet’s biodiversity is still hidden, we need to describe as many species as possible as soon as possible to be able to protect them in time.

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In some species, the pupae are the most commonly observed life stage and look like rice grains on the surface of the host insect. Gardeners are more likely to see the results of parasites, such as aphid mummies, than the wasps themselves.

The exact life history of parasitoid wasps depends on the species, but most tend to be specialists that attack a single host insect species. Together, parasitoid wasps attack aphids, scale insects, scale insects, stink bugs, beetles, and caterpillars in various life stages. The parasitized aphids usually turn brown or black and have a swollen balloon-like appearance. After completing its development, the adult wasp emerges and leaves a round exit hole in the back of the dead aphid, called an aphid mummy.

Female wasps usually parasitize their hosts by paralyzing the adult insect or larva and laying eggs inside. After hatching, the larvae feed inside (endoparasite) or outside (ectoparasite) the host. After pupation, an adult wasp emerges inside or outside the host. Wasps that pupate externally often spin conspicuous pupal cocoons after they emerge from the host. Adults typically feed on nectar, pollen, and honeydew, and in many cases, parasitoid wasps require floral resources for pollen and nectar to maximize their effectiveness.

Parasitoids as biological control agents

Several species of parasitoid wasps are commercially available for the biological control of certain pests in fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants. One species, Aphidius colemani, is designed to control aphids in greenhouses and outdoor growing systems. Various Trichogramma spp. are available for the control of scale insect pests, including corn borer, scoopers, cabbage looper, worms, borers and cuckoo beetles.

In addition to these commercially available parasitoid wasps, natural populations of other species can effectively suppress populations of certain insect pests. Trissolcus spp. are important parasitoids of the eggs of the brown marbled bug (Halyomorpha halys). The entire development of the wasp from egg to pupa takes place inside the parasitized bug egg, which darkens as the wasp develops. One species in particular, the samurai wasp (Trissolcus japonicas), has been observed to parasitize 90% of brown marbled bug eggs. Colpoclypeus florus is another species of parasitoid wasp that attacks the caterpillars of scale insects. In 1992, this species was observed to parasitize approximately 80% of the larvae of leafhoppers in untreated apple orchards in Washington. In some cases, more than 50 C. florus can be produced from a single host. Maintaining natural populations of parasitoid wasps is possible through good conservation practices.

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Parasitoid wasps: Main characteristics

Parasitoid wasps are a group of insects belonging to the order of webworms (Hymenoptera). These wasps lay their eggs on or inside the bodies of other insects such as caterpillars, beetles or aphids. The wasp larvae develop by eating their host, which eventually leads to its death. This behavior makes parasitoid wasps important natural regulators of pest populations.

Parasitoid wasps are divided into several families, each differing in morphology, behavior, and host specificity. Representatives of such families as Ichneumonidae (Ichneumonidae), Braconidae (Braconidae), Chalcidoidea (Chalcidoidea) and others are found in New Zealand.

Families of parasitoid wasps in New Zealand

Ichneumonidae
The family Ichneumonidae is one of the largest families of parasitoid wasps, with thousands of species worldwide. In New Zealand, members of this family play an important role in controlling insect pests. These wasps are characterized by a long body and a distinctive ovipositor structure, which is used to lay eggs in the host.

Ichneumonid species in New Zealand are highly specific in their host selection, making them effective agents of biological control. For example, one common species, Agrypon flaveolatum, specializes in parasitizing the caterpillars of various butterflies that damage agricultural crops.

Braconidae
The family Braconidae is also widely represented in New Zealand. These wasps tend to be smaller than the ichneumonids, but play an equally important role in the ecosystem. Braconids are characterized by a variety of life cycles and host types. In New Zealand, they often parasitize caterpillars and other insects that are pests of forests and agriculture.

Braconidae include species such as Apanteles glomeratus, which parasitizes squirrel caterpillars as an important factor in their natural control.

Chalcidoidea
Chalcidoidea is a broad superfamily of small parasitoid wasps, many of which are also common in New Zealand. These wasps are known for their miniaturized size and high efficiency in controlling insect populations. They often parasitize the eggs and larvae of other insects, preventing their development.

In New Zealand, chalcidoids play a key role in controlling pests such as aphids and small caterpillars. One well-known representative is Encarsia formosa, used for biological control of whiteflies in greenhouses.

Endemic and introduced species

New Zealand has a rich history of both the introduction of new species and the conservation of endemic fauna. Some species of parasitoid wasps have been introduced by humans to control invasive insects that threaten agriculture and local ecosystems. An example is the introduction of some species from the braconid family to control leafhoppers, which have no natural enemies in New Zealand.

Endemic wasp species also play an important role in local ecosystems by maintaining balance and preventing overbreeding of insect pests. For example, endemic species in the family Ichneumonidae specialize on local insect species, many of which are also endemic.

Taxonomic studies and their significance

Taxonomy of parasitoid wasps is an important area of research aimed at species identification, description and classification. In New Zealand, this research is of particular importance as the country has a unique fauna and flora. Describing new species and studying their biology and ecology helps to better understand how they interact with their environment and how they can be used in biological control.

Molecular techniques such as DNA analysis are playing an increasingly important role in taxonomic studies. They can clarify relationships between species, as well as identify new species that are difficult to distinguish on the basis of morphological characters. In New Zealand, such studies are helping to clarify the taxonomy of both endemic and introduced wasp species.

The taxonomy of New Zealand’s parasitoid wasps is a complex and important area of research that contributes to a better understanding of the role of these insects in ecosystems. The diversity of species, their adaptation to local conditions and their role in biological control of pests make parasitoid wasps key elements in maintaining ecological balance. Research in this area continues to expand our knowledge and opens up new opportunities for sustainable management of natural resources.

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Climatic and geographical features of New Zealand

New Zealand is located in the Southern Hemisphere and is characterized by a temperate maritime climate. There is considerable climatic variation across the country, from wet and mild conditions on the west coast to drier and colder regions in the eastern part of the country. These varied conditions create different ecological niches to which parasitoid wasps must adapt.

In addition to climate, New Zealand’s isolation plays an important role. For millions of years, the area has evolved in relative isolation from other continents, resulting in a unique flora and fauna. Parasitoid wasps, especially introduced species, have had to adapt to these specific conditions, including new host types and plant communities.

Adaptation to new host types

One of the major adaptation challenges for parasitoid wasps in New Zealand has been adapting to native insect species that are different from those that wasps have encountered on other continents. Many introduced wasp species have had to change their host selection habits in order to survive and reproduce in their new environment.

Some wasp species have shown a high degree of plasticity in host selection, allowing them to effectively attack native pest species. These adaptive changes can include both behavioral changes (e.g., searching for new habitats or changing host-seeking strategies) and physiological changes (e.g., adapting to a new spectrum of chemical signals emitted by local insects).

Behavioral change and migration

New Zealand’s climatic conditions have also affected the behavior of parasitoid wasps. For example, wasps in colder regions may show seasonal changes in activity, such as migrating to warmer areas or temporarily ceasing activity during the winter months. These changes help wasps maintain populations in conditions that are not always favorable for breeding and finding food.

In addition, adaptation to different microclimates has allowed wasps to inhabit wide geographic areas, from coastal areas to mountainous terrain. Some wasp species have been able to develop abilities that allow them to hunt and breed effectively in high humidity or extreme temperature fluctuations.

Ecological interactions and competition

Adaptations of parasitoid wasps to the New Zealand environment also include interactions with native species. With limited resources and high competition, wasps have had to develop new strategies to ensure their survival. This includes both interspecific competition with other parasitoids and interactions with native plants, which play a role in host search and retention.

Some wasp species enter into complex ecological relationships with native plants. For example, plants may release specific volatile substances that attract wasps for defense against pests. In response, wasps provide plant defense against insect pests, creating a mutually beneficial relationship. These ecological interactions demonstrate how wasp adaptation involves not only physiological changes but also changes in relationships with other species.

Evolutionary changes and long-term adaptations

Long-term adaptation to New Zealand conditions is also evident at an evolutionary level. Populations of wasps that have settled in this country gradually change, resulting in the formation of new subspecies or adapted populations. These changes may include modifications in body structure, breeding habits, or even changes in genetics that help wasps adapt more effectively to local conditions.

Such evolutionary changes can occur over many generations and exemplify how organisms can adapt to new environments through gradual genetic changes. In New Zealand, due to its isolation and unique conditions, such processes are particularly prominent.

Parasitoid wasps show an amazing ability to adapt to the diverse and specific conditions of New Zealand. From adaptation to new host types and behavioral change to complex ecological interactions and evolutionary change, all these aspects show how important it is for wasps to be environmentally specific for survival and successful reproduction. Studying these adaptive mechanisms not only helps to better understand wasp biology, but also opens up new opportunities for the effective use of these insects in the biological control of pests in a changing environment.

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